natural theology

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vol VII: Notes

2012

Notes

[Sunday 29 July 2012 - Saturday 4 August 2012]

[Notebook: DB 72 Energaia]

[page 167]

Sunday 29 July 2012

Martin's book takes me back to the days of my monastic youth when John XXIII's Ecumenical spring lured me into speaking my mind and receiving my marching orders. But I have kept up the pressure and now a theological spring seems within my grasp, and in the most powerful possible way, through physics to theology following the steps of Parmenides, Plato, Aristotle and Aquinas but armed with a clear knowledge f the boundaries of mathematics which are also the boundaries of the fixed points of the Universe, so the boundaries of what is observable. From the fundamental problem of theology as formulated by Parmenides to the Turing machine which sets the limits of deterministic process, that is proof. I am worried that I will never think this again, but I can relax in the knowledge that it has gradually become p[art of me. From the Thomistic point of view, the proposition that the Universe is divine is absurd and unthinkable. Fifty years of tinkering, however, have slowly revealed to me that it is obvious, a matter of clear principle like the theories of relativity.

The 'God Particle' has been in the news lately.

[page 168]

The ultimate output from the dynamics of the scientific community is the literature. The literature is picked up by the technological community seeking profitable ways of combining the fixed features of the Universe revealed by science.

Information is a physical thing. Particles are things, and so the carriers of information.

The Church prospers because people believe that what it says, and they believe what it says because it tells quite an interesting story about sin and salvation which it has propagated very profitably for two thousand years, There is no doubt that we need stability in our lives and this stability is founded on a set of beliefs that form a basus (in the quantum mechanical and communication theoretical sense) for communication of value to one another.

A mild mannered theological manifesto.

The Christian story resonates (like all the other ancient stories) because it explains the difficulties of life (the problem of evil) and promises that it will be alusright in the end because God loves us. The natural story also explains our condition, but it also tells us that we are responsible for our own salvation because the God in which we live judges our actions with their consequences, which may be death or exteinction.

You only see what you know. Greek?

Aquinas' model must be the starting point for this investigation: we reopen the question of the existence of God after a 700 year hiatus.

[page 169]

Monday 30 July 2012

Money / love makes the world go round -- actuality / potential

How do we cast this in computing terms. Start with quantum mechanics. Whatever else, it describes the functioning of the Universe at its simplest and broadest level.

physics / theology -- initial singularity / classical God / Trinity.

Current big problem - quantum mechanics / gravitation. Solution? We move to a bigger space, discrete rather than continuous. Strongest possible observational evidence, the whole observed Universe is discrete. Why? Because the continuum is not observable.

Secular = dynamic. Secularity - Wikipedia

Catholicism vs Marxism Martin page 545 Marxism and religion - Wikipedia

Life requires continued and active construction and error correction (destruction) to continue.

A differential equation expresses a symmetry, the unmarked void between fixed points. The collapse of the wave packet happens at the fixed bounds of the void, one boundary generates it, the other receives it and replies, creating a 'standing wave'. All this can be visualized in 3 space, but quantum mechanics describes processes in Hilbert space a hybrid of orthogonal instances of a complex exponetial function of time, the universal affine parameter measured by phase. What is the overall picture represented to us by mathematics, the boundary

[page 170]

between determinate and indeterminate revealed by Gödel and Turing.

The mathematical literature represents fixed points in the dynamics of the mathematical community which spreads out from the prizewinners to the users of cash registers and other embedded forms of mathematics. An abstract fixed point, like Pythagoras' theorem, is instantiated in an infinite number of right angled triangles.

The big moral question is what should we realize of all the possibilities. This is the art of quantum computation, designing systems which execute the desired algorithms.

What is potential in the time dimension? What is the force that drives time on? Numerus motus secundum prius et posterius (Aristotle: Physics 219b1). Can there be potential without distance, a function without a domain? All of our useful knowledge is functional: do this, get that. Some of these functions are quite deterministic: hammer finger, feel pain; others are less so, send flowers, get a phone call . We also understand the Universe as functional, some deterministic, some stochastic. Aristotle, Stochastic - Wikipedia

Interactopmn - dot product Tomonaga page 34.

The fundamental source of all the trouble in banking and consequent error in the player's estimations of one another (mediated by the rating agencies) [is secrecy].

[page 171]

The principal power of a network is resistance to damage. Ina hierarchy, bad leadership from the top can lead to bad behaviours, as we frequently see. A peer network, on the other hand, by being conscious of itself and self critical (like the scientific community) can relax itself to a stable relationship with its environment.

The world is rent by different theologies. On this site I wish to offer a diagnosis and some ideas about a cure. The problem is that the traditional Gods are invisible, so anyone may choose to describe them in any way they choose. The result is the large set of often incompatible theologies that inhabit the world.

The alternative is to accept that God is visible, and that in fact all our experience is experience of God. This approach makes it possible for theology to be a science, experience and evidence based.

There is quite a distance between these two positions and this site is intended to document my long wandering journey from Catholic Scholastic theology to natural theology.

Tuesday 31 July 2012

All the quantum mechanical stuff is something of a side issue, but a powerful one, since we want the Universe to be as big and as powerful as God and we demonstrate this by modelling.

So the model is the essential expansion of the initial ansatz.

The transfinite computer network shows us that a computer is a network, admittedly highly constrained.

[page 172]

The divine properties of the Universe, size (Cantor) and power (Turing). Demontrated by cosmology and quantum information theory.

A New Theology website released

Martin page 690: 'First: how to reestablish the incompatibility of Christianity and Marxism, . . . '

For a peer network to be self correcting, all public statements should be visible to every one, Since money is a public good, significant movements of money should be made visible.

Theology can be a matter of life and death.

Hilbert space has built in fixed points, the dimensions which are parametrized to create a signal. The computing network also has fixed points, the logical elements, (algorithms) that process the messages, creating and annihilating them.

That monastery was a very strange place, as I can begin to admit to myself now.\, a thoroughgoing adaptation of day to day human life to a certain set of beliefs about the nature of the human enviromnment, God in other words.

The sentence 'in the beginning God created the world' serves as a definition of these four words.

Martin: '[Lansing] is totally and exclusively Christ's man.'

[page 173]

Maybe his own man. Trouble begins when organizations pull people off their geodesics.

Wednesday 1 August 2012

Martin: Who controls the money controls the world insofar as the realization of any potential requires transfer of action to that potential and action is conserved (reduction of the wave packet) so one form is realized at the expense of the others.

Tomonaga page 37: Thomas: 'If the electron has acceleration, there is a complication.'

page 14: g = | magnetic moment| / |angular momentum|.

The whole business of quantum mechanics is to measure the energy equivalent to a quantum of action. This is measured by a frequency E/f = h. In 'practical' terms, the energy measures the interval necessary to perform the action, as in a computer, the faster the clock, the less time the computation takes. The actual time taken for a process is measured by complexity of processes / energy. The complexity of the process is measured by the size of the Turing machine (embodies algorithm) necessary to execute the codec involved. The simplest codec (described by quantum mechanics).

Assumptions
1. The processes of the Universe can be modelled by a transfinite computer network, so the theories of computation and computation apply. Shannon.

[page 174]

The most important point about the theory of communication is that one can only eliminate error by making messages discrete. Error arises in a communication of one signal is mistaken for another. etc.

Quantum mechanics, like traditional theology, is an attempt to explain what goes on behind the scenes. Traditional theology, a result of a period of thought of unknown length, proposes an invisible, omnipotent, omniscient eternal being which creates and sustains the visible world which includes all our lives. The properties of God are devises to ensure that it is deterministic. God being able to foresee and control every event, even though 'acts of God' appear to be completely random to us.

Quantum mechanics is based on the unobservable [invisible] mathematical formalism of Hilbert spaces and vectors and operators in this space. The complex mathematical functions are believed to evolve deterministically, but they are only loosely coupled to observable events.

Given a certain physical setup and the corresponding quantum mechanical equations of motion, the best we can do is predict the probabilities of various outcomes using the Born rule p = |φ|2. The outcomes themselves are clearly defined by the quantum 'eigenvalue equation', Aψ = aψ where A is an operator ['observable'] and a is a real number.

Boson - singulary
Fermion - binary

Boltzmann's method shows that there is order in a classical gas, since it relies on the realization of distinct permutations.

[page 175]

the eigenvalue equation defines both a function and a value associated with that function which measures the probability that that function (of all the functions in the superpositions defined by the energy equation) (Hamiltonian equation, matrix, set of linear simultaneous equations with a guaranteed solution).

The transfinite computer network has all the features of real networks like the internet, but the only limit on its computational power is represented by a certain transfinite number (peer group, peer layer) of Turing machines, Such machines can have their process changed by a signal from another machine.

All information is physical (Landau) so all communication is based on a physical layer of sound waves, electrons, photons, etc. Since all [operations] are in effect computations, computations are also physical, and we study them in quantum information theory.

Christian theologians had to deal with the fact that a large body of exegetes of the New testament, and, presumably, living tradition, maintained that Gopd, while On, had three distinct persons and personalities, a very subtle of not self contradictory statement. [on the other hand, the Universe as we see it has a countable infinity of personalities]

Tomonaga 38 Thomas' theory is purely classical.

page 52: The energy is the solution to an equation, n other words the equation puts bounds on the energy, that is the rate of exchange of quanta, the two way flow of units represented by a function like φ = e-iEt/h. The dimensions of

ET are the same as h and so we might say that this equation sees only pure numbers, ein, n = Et/h

Time is quantized (parametrized) by the steps in a computation. The parameter is emergent, so the actions count the time or does the time count the actions? Both. They are duals that must be related as p and not-p to keep the splitting dynamics of the Universe (like spectral lines) balanced so that the Universe remains in effect omnino simplex.

Newton produced an observable horizon [surface] of God, space and time, God's 'sensorium'. What did he mean? Sensorium - Wikipedia

Sounds mystical, but can be worked out in terms of arithmetic, conserved currents flowing in opposite directions so there a centre of momentum, zero net momentum before and after the interaction. In 3-space momentum is a vector, in 1 space it is indistinguishable from energy.

We think of abstract as metaphysical, but the metaphysical is concrete. Physics describes the properties which are common to all events in the Universe, the physical layer of the universal network. So it is physics that is abstract, relatively simple and straightforward, describing the basic features of the Universe upon which our lives are built. I perceive my life as the birth and growth of a complex network, followed by an inevitable breakdown in my network due to accumulated fatal error. Maybe we can make death technically palatable through the term fatal error.

This is the rub? A, I happy to die, knowing why it

[page 177]

must happen to me. A few new winter aches remind me that I am nearly up to my threescore and ten, although I am hoping for a hundred so I can finish this project and hand it in for marketing.

Be cool. Diplomatic. Do not oppose the old, just build the new, as has happened in the other sciences (with a few clashes here and there [to be resolved by collecting more evidence]). However, theology is recursive in that the subject mattter of theology is partly physics and partly metaphysics. The Cantor world suggests that the only constraint a layer places on a higher layer is the multiplicity of states and the speed of execution [parallel = multiple serial].

Another 'axiom': a stable Universe requires error free communication which requires quantization. Eigenfunctions / standing waves / processes (whose details are invisible to us because they are deterministic).

If the evolution of the wave function is deterministic, it too must be quantized because a continuum carries no information, like a blank sheet of paper, a plane wave. Does each node of a standing wave mark a computational step? Standing waves in Hilbert space. Everything that happens in Hilbert space depends upon phase, that is the measure of 'distance' (interval) in time.

How do we digitize wave functions, whose existence is defined by continuous mathematics? The question is what does the 'reduction of the wave packet' mean? It is a break in symmetry, a weighed random choice between vrious possible outcomes. So are there really was m,any state vectors as the continuous model suggests, so that we need Hilbert spaces of 1 dimensions to work in?

[page 178]

All this seems to be a bit hard to understand if the Universe really did begin as an omnino simplex.

The notion that the First Mover or God is pure activity is quite consistent with the quantum mechanical view of the world, which sees all different events happening with energies and frequencies which fit together in harmony as the solutions of sets of linear simultaneous equations (constraints) represented by a quantum observable (operator). So we see observability as marking the end of a computation. The machine halts in a state which is its output, no doubt to be taken in by another network of machines and processed some more.

Radioactive decay is an example of the reduction of the wave function, and it is our basic way of observing the world, either by patiently watching things decay naturally ort setting up experimental states which are then allowed to decay so that we can observe their output and compare it to the input state which we created for this experiment.

A continuum 'parallel transports' a state, since it has no means to interact with a state and so change it. We may think of a Turing machine as such a logical continuum, deterministically generating a certain output given a input from its domain.

Identify the rebirth of 'old' ideas in 'modern' science. The scientific process is structurally sound since it maps itself onto the world, which has proven to be structurally sound over 13 billion years.

Dirac's equation is linear in time and space [Klein-Gordon quadratic and therefore real?]

Thursday 2 August 2012

A memory (location) is a degree of freedom which can be loaded with a certain amount of data [a symmetry waiting to be broken]. It is sufficient for theoretical purposes to consider binary memories with transfinite addresses.

Networks naturally reflect on themselves, you see me, I see you. I comment on your looks, and so on.

Tomonaga page 93: 'Therefore the subtle property of electron spin appears directly in the everyday macroscopic phenomenon of a magnet attracting iron, and this is related to wholly transcendent facts [in the standard model] such as the symmetry properties of wave functions and the electron being a fermion.

How do Hilbert space and 4-space communicate?

page 92: '. . . it was established that the concept of a matter wave actually existing in space is just as valid as a light wave existing in space.' or space existing in a light wave,. The quantum space of timings antecedes the real space of memories.

At the human level each of us lives and moved in the superposition of potentials arising from our interactions with the people around us. Not necessarily linear, as falling into love (or hate) show.

New notebook Spring2012, DB 73.

Friday 3 August 2012
Saturday 4 August 2012

Tomonaga page 122: Interaction energy = communication rate in actions per unit of time, E = ds/dt

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Further reading

Books

Click on the "Amazon" link below each book entry to see details of a book (and possibly buy it!)

Acemoglu, Daron, and James Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty, Crown Business 2012 "Some time ago a little-known Scottish philosopher wrote a book on what makes nations succeed and what makes them fail. The Wealth of Nations is still being read today. With the same perspicacity and with the same broad historical perspective, Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson have retackled this same question for our own times. Two centuries from now our great-great- . . . -great grandchildren will be, similarly, reading Why Nations Fail." —George Akerlof, Nobel laureate in economics, 2001  
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Aristotle, and (translated by P H Wickstead and F M Cornford), Physics books I-IV, Harvard University Press, William Heinemann 1980 Introduction: 'The title "Physics" is misleading. .. "Lectures on Nature" the alternative title found in editions of the Greek text, is more enlightening. ... The realm of Nature, for Aristotle, includes all things that move and change ... . Thus the ultimate "matter" which, according to Aristotle, underlies all the elementary substances must be studied, in its changes at least, by the Natural Philosopher. And so must the eternal heavenly spheres of the Aristotelean philosophy, insofar as they themselves move of are the cause of motion in the sublunary world.' 
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Bell, John S, Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics, Cambridge University Press 1987 Jacket: JB ... is particularly famous for his discovery of a crucial difference between the predictions of conventional quantum mechanics and the implications of local causality ... This work has played a major role in the development of our current understanding of the profound nature of quantum concepts and of the fundamental limitations they impose on the applicability of classical ideas of space, time and locality. 
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Christie, Agatha, Parker Pyne Investigates, HarperCollins Publishers 2003 Amazon Editorial Review Book Description 'Agatha Christie is more than the most popular mystery writer of all time. In a career that spans over half a century, her name is synonymous with brilliant deception, ingenious puzzles, and the surprise denouement. By virtually inventing the modern mystery novel she has earned her title as the Queen of Crime. Curious? Then you're invited to read....PARKER PYNE INVESTIGATES. The personal ad posed a simple question: Are you happy? If not, consult Mr. Parker Pyne. The answer is a resounding no for a jealous wife who suspects her husband of infidelity....for a lonely widow driven to assume a new identity....for a distraught mother whose son has been kidnapped....and for the fiancee of a strangely reclusive bride-to-be. But what sort of detective would solicit in the personals? The sort who has a knack for investigating affairs of the heart. For therein lie the darkest motives for murder. And they are proving most lucrative for the hopelessly romantic-and highly suspicious Inspector Parker Pyne.' 
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Davies, Paul C W, and David S Betts, Quantum Mechanics, Chapman and Hall 1994-1995 Jacket: 'Quantum mechanics is the key to modern physics and chemistry, yet it is notoriously difficult to understand. This book is designed to overcome that obstacle. Clear and concise, it provides an easily readable introduction intended for science undergraduates with no previous knowledge of quantum theory, leading them through to the advanced topics usually encountered at the final year level. Although the subject matter is standard, novel techniques have been employed that considerably simplify the technical presentation. The authors use their extensive experience of teaching and popularizing science to explain the many difficult, abstract points of the subject in easily comprehensible language. Helpful examples and thorough sets of exercises are also given to enable students to master the subject.. 
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de Witt, Bryce S and Neill Graham (eds) , and Hugh Everett III, J A Wheeler, B S DeWitt, L N Cooper, D van Vechten, N Graham (contributors), The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton UP 1973 Jacket: 'A novel interpretation of quantum mechanics, first proposed in brief form by Hugh Everett in 1957, forms the nucleus around which this book is developed. The volume contains Dr Everett's short paper from 1957, "'Relative State' Formulation of Quantum Mechanics", and a far longer exposition of his interpretation, entitled "The Theory of the Universal Wave Function", never before published. In addition, other papers by De Witt, Graham and Cooper and van Vechtem provide further dicussion of the same theme. Together they constitute virtually the entire world output of scholarly commentary on the Everett interpretation.' 
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Diamond, Jared, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies, W W Norton and Co 1997 'Diamond's book is complex and a bit overwhelming. But the thesis he methodically puts forth--examining the "positive feedback loop" of farming, then domestication, then population density, then innovation, and on and on--makes sense. Written without favor, Guns, Germs, and Steel is good global history.' Amazon.com 
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Diamond, Jared, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Viking Adult 2004 'As suggested by its title, this book is about societal collapses - past, present and future - and the factors that cause human societies to fail. ... [Diamond's] primary mission is to determine the ecological, political and cultural conditions that lead to collapse and to contrast these with the conditions that favour success. ... Collapse is based on a series of detailed case studies. ... Diamond then provides a fuller exploration of the many rich parallels between these historic cases and select modern societies. ... What emerges most clearly from [his] analysis is the central role played by environmetnal decay in undermining human societies. ... In the end, [his] painstaking toil in the deep mines of history rewards him with sufficient nuggets of hope that he emerges 'cautiously optimistic' about the human prospect. ... The most important lesson to be drawn from Collapse is that resilient societies are nimble ones, capable of long term planning and of abandoning deeply entrenched but ultimately destructive core values and beliefs. This, in turn, requires a well informed public, inspired leadership and the political will to go against the established order of things. ... ' William Rees, Nature 433:15, 6 January 2005.  
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Everett III, Hugh, and Bryce S Dewitt, Neill Graham (editors), The Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press 1973 Jacket: 'A novel interpretation of quantum mechanics, first proposed in brief form by Hugh Everett in 1957, forms the nucleus around which this book has developed. The volume contains Dr Everett's short paper from 1957, "'Relativge State' formulation of quantum mechanics" and a far longer exposition of his interpretation entitled "The Theory of the Universal Wave Function" never before published. In addition other papers by Wheeler, DeWitt, Graham, Cooper and van Vechten provide further discussion of the same theme. Together they constitute virtually the entire world output of scholarly commentary on the Everett interpretation.' 
Amazon
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Lonergan, Bernard J F, and Robert M. Doran, Frederick E. Crowe (eds), Verbum : Word and Idea in Aquinas (Collected Works of Bernard Lonergan volume 2) , University of Toronto Press 1997 Jacket: 'Verbum is a product of Lonergan's eleven years of study of the thought of Thomas Aquinas. The work is considered by many to be a breakthrough in the history of Lonergan's theology ... . Here he interprets aspects in the writing of Aquinas relevant to trinitarian theory and, as in most of Lonergan's work, one of the principal aims is to assist the reader in the search to understand the workings of the human mind.' 
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Lonergan, Bernard J F, Insight : A Study of Human Understanding (Collected Works of Bernard Lonergan : Volume 3), University of Toronto Press 1992 '... Bernard Lonergan's masterwork. Its aim is nothing less than insight into insight itself, an understanding of understanding' 
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Nilsson, Nils J, Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis, Morgan Kaufmann 1998 Preface: This introductory textbook employs a novel perspective from which to view topics in artificial intelligence (AI). I will consider a progression of AI systems or "agents", each slightly more complex than its predecessor. I begin with elementary agents that respond to sensed properties of their environments. Even such simple machines allow me to treat topics such as machine vision, machine learning and machine evolution. Then by stages I introduce techniques that allow agents to exploit information about the task environment that cannot be immediately sensed. ... Because the progression follows what plausibly might have been milestones in the evolution of animals, I have called the approach evolutionary artificial intelligence. I intend the book to be as much a proposal about how to think about AI as it is a description of AI techniques. Examples will be used to provide motivation and grounding.' p xix.  
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Papers
Dalrymple, William, "Letter from Pakistan: Days of Rage: Challenges for the Nation's Future", The New Yorker, 83, 20, 23 July 2007, page 26-35. 'Imran Khan, the country's great sporting hero, who retired from cricket to enter politics and founded a party called Tehrik-e-Insaaf, or the Movement for Justice, in 1996, initially believed that Musharraf seriously intended to reform the system. But he has joined the lawyers. "This is the first time in our history that the judiciary has asserted its independence", he told me. "Normally. it just sides with whoever is in power. Change is irreversible. You can't have prosperity without genuine democracy and an independent judiciary."'. back
Surwiecki, James, "The financial page: Fuel for thought", The New Yorker, 83, 20, 23 July 2007, page 25. ' ... between 1984 and 2002 the average vehicle got twenty percent heavier and its zero-to-sixty acceleration improved twenty-five per cent, while fuel efficiency stagnated. (By contrast, between 1975, when fuel-economy standards were first introduced, and 1984, average fuel economy improved sixty-two percent, without any decline in performance.) This is not because of technological difficulties or a conspiracy on the part of the auto industry. it is because the automakers have listened to car buyers, and put their energy into making vehicles bigger and faster rather than more efficient. In calling for a law requiring better gas-mileage in our cars, then, voters are really saying that they're unhappy with the collective result of the choices they made as buyers. Sometimes, they know, we need to save ourselves from ourselves.'. back
Links
Dominicans Dominicans: Order of Preachers 'WWW.OP.ORG is the official international Web site of the Order of Preachers (the Dominicans). The branches of the Dominican family are multiple: brothers, contemplative nuns, congregations of contemplative and apostolic sisters, lay persons in fraternities or secular institutes, secular priests in fraternities. "Each one has its own character, its autonomy. However by taking part in the charism of saint Dominic, they share between them a single vocation to be preachers in the Church (Chapter of Mexico, 1992)."' back
Fourier analysis - Wikipedia Fourier analysis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Fourier analysis, named after Joseph Fourier's introduction of the Fourier series, is the decomposition of a function in terms of a sum of sinusoidal basis functions (vs. their frequencies) that can be recombined to obtain the original function. That process of recombining the sinusoidal basis functions is also called Fourier synthesis (in which case Fourier analysis refers specifically to the decomposition process).' back
Harmonic analysis - Wikipedia Harmonic analysis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Harmonic analysis is the branch of mathematics that studies the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves. It investigates and generalizes the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms. The basic waves are called "harmonics", hence the name "harmonic analysis," but the name "harmonic" in this context is generalized beyond its original meaning of integer frequency multiples. In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as signal processing, quantum mechanics, and neuroscience.' back
Jean le Rond d'Alembert - Wikipedia Jean le Rond d'Alembert - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Jean le Rond d'Alembert (November 16, 1717 —1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist and philosopher. He was also co-editor with Denis Diderot of the Encyclopedie. D'Alembert's method for the wave equation is named after him.' back
Joseph-Louis Lagrange - Wikipedia Joseph-Louis Lagrange - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Joseph-Louis Lagrange, comte de l'Empire (January 25, 1736 — April 10, 1813; b. Turin, baptised in the name of Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia) was an Italian mathematician and astronomer who made important contributions to all fields of analysis and number theory and to classical and celestial mechanics as arguably the greatest mathematician of the 18th century.' back
Leonhard Euler - Wikipedia Leonhard Euler - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Leonhard Paul Euler (pronounced Oiler; . . . (April 15, 1707 — September 18 [O.S. September 7] 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist, who spent most of his life in Russia and Germany. He published more papers than any other mathematician in history.' back
Marxism and religion - Wikipedia Marxism and religion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'The founder and primary theorist of Marxism, the nineteenth century German sociologist Karl Marx, had an ambivalent attitude to religion, viewing it primarily as "the opium of the people" that had been used by the ruling classes to give the working classes false hope for millennia, while at the same time recognizing it as a form of protest by the working classes against their poor economic conditions.[1] In the Marxist-Leninist interpretation of Marxist theory, developed primarily by Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, religion is seen as negative to human development, and socialist states that follow a Marxist-Leninist variant are atheistic and explicitly antireligious. Due to this, a number of avowedly Marxist governments in the twentieth century, such as the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, implemented rules introducing state atheism. However, several religious communist groups exist, and Christian communism was important in the early development of communism.' back
Probability axioms - Wikipedia Probability axioms - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'In probability theory, the probability P of some event E, denoted P(E), is defined in such a way that P satisfies the Kolmogorov axioms.' back
Quantum entanglement - Wikipedia Quantum entanglement - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Quantum entanglement, also called the quantum non-local connection, is a possible property of a quantum mechanical state of a system of two or more objects in which the quantum states of the constituting objects are linked together so that one object can no longer be adequately described without full mention of its counterpart&mdasheven if the individual objects are spatially separated in a spacelike manner. This interconnection leads to non-classical correlations between observable physical properties of remote systems, often referred to as nonlocal correlations.' back
r/K selection theory - Wikipedia r/K selection theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Typically, r-selected species exploit empty niches, and produce many offspring, each of whom has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood. In contrast, K-selected species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and invest more heavily in much fewer offspring, each of whom has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood.' back
Renormalization group - Wikipedia Renormalization group - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'In theoretical physics, renormalization group (RG) refers to a mathematical apparatus that allows one to investigate the changes of a physical system as one views it at different distance scales. In particle physics it reflects the changes in the underlying force laws as one varies the energy scale at which physical processes occur. A change in scale is called a "scale transformation" or "conformal transformation." The renormalization group is intimately related to "conformal invariance" or "scale invariance," a symmetry by which the system appears the same at all scales (so-called self-similarity).' back
Secularity - Wikipedia Secularity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saecularis meaning of a generation, belonging to an age. The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones. This meaning has been extended to mean separation from any religion, regardless of whether it has a similar doctrine.' back
Sensorium - Wikipedia Sensorium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'The term sensorium (plural: sensoria) refers to the sum of an organism's perception, the "seat of sensation" where it experiences and interprets the environments within which it lives. The term originally enters English from the Late Latin in the mid-17th century, from the stem sens- (see: sense). In earlier use it referred, in a broader sense, to the brain as the mind's organ (Oxford English Dictionary 1989). In medical, psychological, and physiological discourse it has come to refer to the total character of the unique and changing sensory environments perceived by individuals. These include the sensation, perception, and interpretation of information about the world around us by using faculties of the mind such as senses, phenomenal and psychological perception, cognition and intelligence.' back
Stochastic - Wikipedia Stochastic - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 'Stochastic (from the Greek στόχος for aim or guess) is an adjective that refers to systems whose behavior is intrinsically non-deterministic, sporadic, and categorically not intermittent (i.e. random). A stochastic process is one whose behavior is non-deterministic, in that a system's subsequent state is determined both by the process's predictable actions and by a random element. However, according to M. Kac and E. Nelson, any kind of time development (be it deterministic or essentially probabilistic) which is analyzable in terms of probability deserves the name of stochastic process.' back
Wave equation - Wikipedia Wave equation - Wikipedia. the free encyclopedia 'The wave equation is an important second-order linear partial differential equation for the description of waves – as they occur in physics – such as sound waves, light waves and water waves. It arises in fields like acoustics, electromagnetics, and fluid dynamics. Historically, the problem of a vibrating string such as that of a musical instrument was studied by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Joseph-Louis Lagrange.' back

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